| 【*】 | 作者感謝葉長城博士和蔡育岱老師的研究協助,以及John Duffield和Aaron
Rapport兩位教授透過書信的指導和建議。惟所有文責皆由本人獨自承擔。 |
| 【註1】 |
C. P. Bown, “The Economics of Trade Disputes, the GATT’s
Article XXIII, and the WTO’s Dispute Settlement Understanding,” Economics and
Politics, Vol. 14, No. 3 (2002): 283-323; M. Butler and H. Hauser, “The WTO
Dispute Settlement Mechanism: A First Assessment from an Economic Perspective,”
Journal of Law, Economics and Organization, Vol. 16, No. 2 (2000): 503-533; K.
Leitner and S. Lester, “WTO Dispute Settlement 1995-2002: A Statistical
Analysis,” Journal of International Economic Law, Vol. 6, No. 1 (2003): 251-261;
M. Busch and E. Reinhard, “Testing International Trade Law: Empirical Studies of
GATT/WTO Dispute Settlement,” in D. M. Kennedy and J. D. Southwick, eds., The
Political Economy of International Trade Law: Essays in Honor of Robert Hudec
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002): 457-481; J. Smith, “Inequality in
International Trade? Developing Countries and Institutional Change in WTO
Dispute Settlement,” Review of International Political Economy, Vol. 11 (2004):
542-573. |
| 【註2】 |
J. Bohanes and F. Garza, “Going beyond Stereotypes:
Participation of Developing Countries in WTO Dispute Settlement,” Trade, Law and
Development, Vol. 4, No. 1 (2012): 48. |
| 【註3】 |
P. Gappah, “An Evaluation of the Role of Legal Aid in
International Dispute Resolution with Emphasis on the Advisory Centre on WTO
Law,” in H. Hohmann, ed., Agreeing and Implementing The Doha Round of the WTO
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008): 308-310; S. Odano and Z. Abedin,
“Insufficiency in the Dispute Settlement Mechanism of the WTO: Consequences and
Implications for the Multilateral Trading System,” GSIR Working Papers: Economic
Development and Policy Series (EDP08-1, March 2008): 2-3; M. Butler and H.
Hauser, “The WTO Dispute Settlement Mechanism,” op. cit. |
| 【註4】 |
J. Bohanes and F. Garza, “Going beyond Stereotypes,” op.
cit. |
| 【註5】 |
According to the Art. 23 of the DSU, the DSM precludes the use
of any other possible ways for the resolution of trade-related disputes between
or among members. |
| 【註6】 |
Marc Busch and Eric Reinhardt, “Developing Countries and
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade/World Trade Organization Dispute
Settlement,” Journal of World Trade, Vol. 37, No. 4 (2003): 719-720. |
| 【註7】 |
Christina Davis and Sarah Bermeo, “Who Files? Developing
Country Participation in GATT/WTO Adjudication,” Journal of Politics, Vol. 71,
No. 3 (July 2009): 1035 |
| 【註8】 |
Chad Bown and Bernard Hoekman, “WTO Dispute Settlement and the
Missing Developing Country Cases: Engaging the Private Sector,” Journal of
International Economic Law, Vol. 8, No. 4 (December 2005): 872-873. Their data
come from the Advisory Centre on WTO Law (2004). Today, however, the billing
policy could be changed and the fee would be a little higher; see:
http://www.acwl.ch/e/documents/ACWL-MB-D-2007-7.pdf (last visited: 2013/04/22). |
| 【註9】 |
Roderick Abbott, “Are Developing Countries Deterred from Using
the WTO Dispute Settlement System?” ECIPE working paper (No. 01/2007): 11. |
| 【註10】 |
Ibid. and M. Busch, “The WTO Dispute Settlement Mechanism and
Developing Countries1,” The WTO Dispute Settlement (2004), available at:
http://www9.georgetown.edu/faculty/mlb66/SIDA.pdf (last visited: 2013/04/22). |
| 【註11】 |
Gregory Shaffer, “How to Make the WTO Dispute Settlement System
Work for Developing Countries: Some Proactive Developing Country Strategies,” in
Victor Mosoti, ed., Towards a Development-Supportive Dispute Settlement System
in the WTO (Geneva: ICTSD, 2003): 26-29. |
| 【註12】 |
Chad Bown, “On the Economic Success of GATT/WTO Dispute
Settlement,” Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 86, No. 3 (May 2004):
812. |
| 【註13】 |
Marc Busch and Eric Reinhardt, “Testing International Trade
Law: Empirical Studies of GATT/WTO Dispute Settlement,” in Daniel Kennedy and
James Southwick, eds., The Political Economy of International Trade Law: Essays
in Honor of Robert Hudec (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002): 467. |
| 【註14】 |
Ibid.: 465. |
| 【註15】 |
Kyle Bagwell and Robert Staiger, The Economics of the World
Trading System (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2003): 95-96. |
| 【註16】 |
Chad Bown, “Developing Countries as Plaintiffs and Defendants
in GATT/WTO Trade Disputes,” World Economy, Vol. 27, No. 1 (2004): 59-80. |
| 【註17】 |
Ibid. |
| 【註18】 |
Ibid.: 68 (compared with 11% under the GATT, there is 45%
possibility under the WTO). |
| 【註19】 |
http://data.worldbank.org/about/country-classifications/country-and-lending-groups#MENA
(last visited: 2013/04/15). |
| 【註20】 |
See: http://data.worldbank.org/country/united-states and
http://data.worldbank.org/about/country-classifications (last visited:
2013/04/15). |
| 【註21】 |
The United Nations has also stated that there is no fully
shared definition of developing countries. |
| 【註22】 |
See:
http://www.oecd.org/general/listofoecdmembercountries-ratificationoftheconventionontheoecd.htm
(last visited: 2013/4/15). |
| 【註23】 |
A brief explanation and dataset can be downloaded from: SN 4814
-World Bank World Development Indicators, 1960-2011, via at:
http://www.esds.ac.uk/findingData/snDescription.asp?sn=4814 (last visited:
2013/4/15). |
| 【註24】 |
Judged by the level of income; namely, countries are low-income
with GNI/n of US$250 (or less) and will be middle-income with GNI/n above
US$250. |
| 【註25】 |
A brief explanation and dataset can be downloaded from: SN 5761
-IMF World Economic Outlook, 1980-2017, via at:
http://www.esds.ac.uk/findingData/snDescription.asp?sn=5761 (last visited:
2013/04/15) |
| 【註26】 |
See: http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/weomay/weocon.HTM (last
visited: 2013/04/15) |
| 【註27】 |
See: http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/devel_e/d1who_e.htm
(last visited: 2013/04/15) |
| 【註28】 |
For example, in the dispute of anti-dumping, one country (i.e.
India) could be judged as a developing country but also could be found as a
developed country. See: K. Bohl, “Problems of Developing Country Access to WTO
Dispute Settlement,” Kent Journal of International & Comparative Law, Vol. 9
(2009): 132. |
| 【註29】 |
According to the official website, there are currently 49
least-developed countries around the world, 34 of which have become WTO members.
Please see: WTO, WT/COMTD/W/10 8 (November 1995), via at:
www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/devel_e/teccop_e/w10_e.doc (last visited:
2013/04/15). |
| 【註30】 |
The capability and approach to access food. See:
http://www.globaltradealert.org/sites/default/files/woertz_gta4.pdf (last
visited: 2013/04/15) |
| 【註31】 |
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/
and http://www.intracen.org/trade-support/trade-statistics/ (last visited:
2013/04/16). |
| 【註32】 |
It is worth noting that the MENA countries (particularly oil
exporting group) are not ranked in the top 20 of this group of states. |
| 【註33】 |
Giacomo Luciani, “Allocation vs. Production States: A
Theoretical Framework,” in Hazem Beblawi and Giacomo Luciani, eds., The Rentier
State: Nation, State and the Integration of the Arab World (London: Croom Helm,
1987): 72; Michael Herb, “No Taxation without Representation? Rents,
Development, and Democracy,” Comparative Politics, Vol. 37, No. 3 (2005): 8. |
| 【註34】 |
Michael Ross, “Does Oil Hinder Democracy?” World Politics, Vol.
53 No. 3 (April 2001): 325-361. |
| 【註35】 |
Thad Dunning, Crude Democracy: Natural Resource Wealth and
Political Regimes (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009): Ch. 1. |
| 【註36】 |
Andrew Moravcsik, “Taking Preferences Seriously: A Liberal
Theory of International Politics,” International Organization, Vol. 51, No. 4
(Autumn 1997): 513-515. |
| 【註37】 |
Ibid.: 516. |
| 【註38】 |
政治上,UAE是七個公國(emirates)組成的聯邦國家,但政體態樣不符合當代民主政治的界說。科威特雖然係由家族世襲統治,但卻是海灣地區唯一享有自由與公平選舉的國會政治國家。經濟上,UAE(特別是它的Dubai公國)擁有經濟活動的多樣性,除了石油產業外,還有觀光以及許多外國投資。而科威特則明顯缺乏石油以外的私經濟產業發展。Michael
Herb, “A Nation of Bureaucrats: Political Participation and Economic
Diversification in Kuwait and The United Arab Emirates,” International Journal
of Middle East Studies, Vol. 41, No. 3 (2009): 375-395. |
| 【註39】 |
See: http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/ecuador/overview (last
visited: 2013/04/27). |
| 【註40】 |
Elizabeth Becker, “Lawmakers Voice Doom and Gloom on W.T.O.
Ruling,” New York Times, C1, 7 (April 28, 2004). Available at:
http://www.nytimes.com/2004/04/28/business/lawmakers-voice-doom-and-gloom-on-wto-ruling.html?pagewanted=2&src=pm
(last visited: 2013/04/28). |
| 【註41】 |
IMF, Regional Economic Outlook: Middle East and Central Asia
(2007), available at:
http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/reo/2007/mcd/eng/mreo0507.pdf (last visited:
2013/04/28). |
| 【註42】 |
出口石油賺取的收入在2006到2008年約占取租型國家總收入的近9成,而在2002年也占了總收入的近8成。詳見:Ibrahim
Saif, The Oil Boom in the GCC Countries, 2002–2008: Old Challenges, Changing
Dynamics (Carnegie Middle East Center, March 2009): 3. |
| 【註43】 |
但我們也必須記得,即便經濟上有能力參與DSM,但主觀上沒有意願或動機時,國家也不會選擇參與DSM。 |
| 【註44】 |
This argument has been mentioned earlier in page 10, which is
related to the concept of trading country. |
| 【註45】 |
If one country is heavily aid-dependent or import-dependent,
this country’s domestic economy will be very likely non-diversified. As a
result, this country is less possible to file any lawsuit at the international
level or need to adopt any trade policy to protect its domestic industries (due
to it does not have such industries at the domestic level). |